Health as a value, health as a right

Can you still see Mona Lisa smile? Photo by cottonbro from Pexels

A saying in Italian goes like this: “Quando c’è la salute, c’è tutto” (When there is health, there is everything). That is, everything that matters is there, as long as you are healthy.

Arguably, and strange as it may sound given the coronavirus pandemic, most people may have actually been (at least physically) very healthy in the last few weeks, and probably healthier than they would have been without the pandemic. The reason is clear: the lockdown measures either strongly recommended or enforced in most countries have kept most people physically distant from other people. As a result, the chances to catch any virus have dramatically dropped for most people.

But it has also become clear that the Italian saying is false, at least if understood literally. Most people’s health may have been secured, but at the price of missing out, at least for some time, on many of the things that matter.

No, when there is (physical) health, not everything that matters is there. It’s not easy to articulate the goods that have been totally sacrificed or drastically set back by the enforced or voluntary confinement, let alone compose a complete list, but I’ll try:

1) The freedom to move around, both in one’s surroundings and between cities or countries, whenever one wants and for whatever reason;

2) Face-to-face social interaction (with schoolmates, teachers, professors, colleagues, friends, relatives, lovers…) and the benefits (including, e.g. mental health) that usually come with face-to-face as opposed to virtual interactions (an important debate to be had here, by psychologists and philosophers, is precisely what the face-to-face benefit differential is);

3) The personal freedom usually afforded to parents by being able to rely on kindergartens and schools (as well as children’s freedom from parents!);

4) Any kind of work that cannot be done (or cannot be done well) from home, not to mention the very fact that many people have become unemployed;

5) Related to this, the overall economic wealth in many countries;

6) The possibility of many leisure activities, again including their many benefits;

7) Not least, a balanced relationship between the state and its citizens, where the state does not systematically present itself to law-abiding citizens in the sinister guise of policemen controlling their behavior.

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How psychology can help shape policies (3/3): Measuring influence

This is the third post in the series on how psychology can help shape policies. The first post focused on modelling human behaviour and the second on influencing behaviour.

An inalienable component of good policy-making is analysing the impacts the policies have. Psychology can also help at this stage, especially since, in addition to overt behaviour, it is necessary to understand the impact of the policy on covert psychological phenomena, such as attitudes, stereotypes, or thought patterns.

Given that reliable measurement is a cornerstone of any scientific discipline, psychologists have generated a rich set of assessment tools over the years to measure covert psychological phenomena. In the lab, various technological aids can be used, such as the analysis of how the eyes move, as well as various biological signals reflecting processes in the brain and the body. In the context of policy making, however, perhaps the most valuable tools that psychology can offer are reliable questionnaires for assessing covert psychological phenomena.

As early as around 1980 the University of Tartu psychology lab was equipped with a computer. Today’s equipment allows measurement of various brain and body signals. Standing from left to right: Aavo Luuk, Urmas Mast, Väino Vaske. Sitting: Jüri Allik and Julia Berger (later Blum). Photo from the university archive

Why should policy-makers care about covert psychological phenomena? Occasionally, a covert phenomenon, such as a gender stereotype, may be a key predictor of some overt behavioural goal, such as bridging the pay gap. For instance, in order to increase the share of women in highly paid positions, a policy-maker may decide to target gender stereotypes such as the ungrounded belief that women’s personality traits are unsuitable for top executive positions1 ELLEMERS, N. (2018). Gender Stereotypes. – Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 275–298. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719. . When assessing  the effectiveness of such a policy, the policy-maker could complement wage statistics with direct measures of stereotypes (see, e.g.2 ALLIK, J., MÕTTUS, R., REALO, A. (2010). Does National Character Reflect Mean Personality Traits When Both are Measured by the Same Instrument? – Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 62–69. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2009.10.008. ).

At other times, covert psychological phenomena may be the ultimate aims of policies in and of themselves. For instance, it is becoming increasingly clear that the growth of economic value, measured as the gross domestic product, is not a sufficient criterion for making various decisions. Alongside GDP, it is important to measure public well-being, which has both objective components (e.g., access to health services) and essentially subjective components (e.g., individual health satisfaction). Identifying and measuring the various components of subjective well-being has a long history in psychology3 KÖÖTS‐AUSMEES, L., REALO, A. (2015). The Association between Life Satisfaction and Self-Reported Health Status in Europe. – European Journal of Personality, 29, 647–657. DOI: 10.1002/per.2037. .

The advice of psychologists and other behavioural scientists is also worth seeking in situations in which a studied phenomenon is not necessarily psychological but questionnaires are used as the main research method, as in, for example, regular state-commissioned monitoring surveys.

Among other things, psychologists are experts at making questionnaires. They know that the answers depend on how the questions have been formulated. Image credit: Inga Külmoja

Psychologists have also studied how the obtained answers depend on how the questions have been formulated. For instance, asking respondents directly whether they think that men are more capable than women is unlikely to reveal true levels of gender stereotypes. Instead, respondents can be presented with more indirect questions, such as: ‘Do men and women have different abilities?’

Psychologists possess various methods to manage these risks, among other things, by controlling the length of questionnaires4 KONSTABEL, K., LÖNNQVIST, J-E., LEIKAS, S., VELÁZQUEZ, R. G., QIN, H., VERKASALO, M., WALKOWITZ, G. (2017). Measuring Single Constructs by Single Items: Constructing an Even Shorter Version of the “Short Five” Personality Inventory. – PLOS ONE, 12, e0182714. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182714. . Estonia already has several good examples of how such measures have been applied in monitoring surveys5 KAARE, P-R., MÕTTUS, R., KONSTABEL, K. (2009). Pathological Gambling in Estonia: Relationships with Personality, Self-Esteem, Emotional States and Cognitive Ability. – Journal of Gambling Studies, 25, 377–390. DOI: 10.1007/s10899-009-9119-y. , and this is encouraging for future attempts.

Andero Uusberg is a Senior Research Fellow in Affective Psychology at the University of Tartu. Kariina Laas is the Head of the University of Tartu Institute of Psychology.

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Where is global tourism going?

Overtourism is one of the major concerns in the tourism industry – not these days, of course, when the world is locked down due to the global outbreak of COVID-19, but when the world gets back to normal, overtourism will most likely return.

In the next ten years, the travel market will be hit by a massive wave of millennial travellers from Asia, especially from China and India. This will have a major impact on the industry. Therefore, the hospitality industry should be prepared to make certain adjustments to meet their needs. The solution could lie in opening new areas and destinations that travellers have not previously considered.

We’ll be also seeing considerably younger travellers from China in the next ten years. Image credit: Oleg Afonin, Flickr CC BY 2.0

Millennials (25–35 years old) are in general the largest group of consumers who are tremendously changing the consumption patterns established by their predecessors. The majority of Millennials trust a friend’s endorsement most. About half admit that their purchases are influenced by their own experience with a brand and the reviews left on the websites. Social media helps them create brand awareness and trust. It also serves as a major platform for customer service.

Likewise, Generation Z (9-24 years old) does not trust traditional forms of advertising either. They rather rely on peer testimonials and influencers whose values and interests they share. However, they are less into Facebook and Twitter, and more into Instagram and Snapchat to showcase and search for appealing videos and images.

The influence of social media, especially Instagram, on Millennials and Generation Z should not be underestimated, because that is where they also search for the next big travel destination (Global Wellness Summit, 2019, p. 32). Moreover, the brand promotion in social media should shift from formal ads to storytelling, which is spiced up with catchy images and videos and can give the real taste of the destination.

The demand for quality social interaction is reflected in the growing importance of the sharing economy. In addition to the classic rental service, people are willing to provide tourists with free accommodation in their place of residence. Moreover, the experience of the sharing economy is moving from the accommodation sector to other spheres. There are new home-based restaurants operating and personalized “concierge” services offered, where private individuals are giving tourists their time and assistance to discover a destination through the eyes of a local1 Collina, L., Galluzzo, L., Gerosa, G., Bellè, M., & Lidia Maiorino, M. (2017). Sharing Economy for Tourism and Hospitality: New Ways of Living and New Trends in Interior Design. The Design Journal, 20(sup1), S3448–S3463. doi:10.1080/14606925.2017.1352848, p. S3449 .

The reason why sharing economy platforms such as AirBnB have become so popular could lie in the changing guest preferences. It is important to understand that some travellers do not enjoy staying in a traditional hotel room, because they need much more space and flexibility. However, they would still like to experience the comfort and services of a luxury hotel. It feels so good to travel far away from home and stay in a place which feels like home.

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How psychology can help shape policies (2/3): Influencing behaviour

This is the second post in the series on how psychology can help shape policies. The first post focused on modelling human behaviour.

Another area in which psychology can be applied in policy making is influencing behaviour, which is the subject of persuasion research.

Who people follow

Psychologists specialising in persuasion research have explored, among other things, the impact of the personal characteristics of a message source on the credibility of the communicated message1 WILSON, E., SHERRELL, D. (1993). Source Effects in Communication and Persuasion Research: A Meta-Analysis of Effect Size. – Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 21, 101–112. DOI: 10.1007/BF02894421. . Research suggests that people are generally susceptible to persuasion by impartial experts, by people who are similar to themselves, by physically attractive people, and by those in some position of authority.

These well-established insights are still useful today. A troubling issue in Estonia and elsewhere is vaccine hesitancy on the part of parents, which is surprisingly resistant to the best efforts of doctors and other experts2 BREWER, N. T., CHAPMAN, G. B., ROTHMAN, A. J., LEASK, J., KEMPE, A. (2018). Increasing Vaccination: Putting Psychological Science into Action. – Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(3), 149–207. DOI: 10.1177/1529100618760521. . Part of this paradox can be explained by realizing that even though people opposed to vaccination find experts competent, they also find them to be partial advocates of conflicting interests. Persuasion research tells us that perceived partiality may undo the impact of perceived expertise. Winning back the trust of hesitant parents must therefore be considered when designing policies that aim to influence vaccination behaviour.

How and when do ad tricks influence people

One of the most prolific contributions of persuasion research is the elaboration likelihood model, which explains why logical arguments have a chance to convince only when the recipients are willing and able to scrutinise these arguments3 PETTY, R., CACIOPPO, J. (1986). The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion. – Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 123–205. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60214-2. .

In the absence of motivation or ability, people become open to influence by various tricks and gimmicks of the advertising and sales sphere (for an accessible overview, see Cialdini Influence: Psychology of Persuasion, 1984). Among such tricks, for example, is the projection of a good feeling derived from a funny commercial onto the product shown at the end of the commercial (even if the joke is completely unrelated to the brand).

Another example is the barely perceptible feeling of reciprocity when a salesperson gives someone candy or a pen, rendering the receiver slightly more susceptible to the proposition following the gift-giving, such as subscription to some service. These persuasion techniques are largely unnoticeable and unconscious, and take place on the level of automatic psychological processes.

Receiving a pen from a salesperson may seem trivial. However, you will become slightly more susceptible to his or her sales proposal even without noticing it. Image credit: Inga Külmoja
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Why you should be cautious about antibiotics: The case of Estonia

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that the number of deaths related to drug-resistant infections in 2019 was approximately 33,000 in Europe and 700,000 globally.

The large-scale and unnecessary use of antibiotics contributes to the development and spread of drug-resistant pathogenic bacteria. Statistical data also confirms that countries with the lowest rate of antibiotic consumption have fewer antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Estonia is one of the countries where the rate of antibiotic consumption and thus also the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has been relatively low. This was confirmed in a survey carried out by Jana Lass, a research fellow of clinical pharmacology at the University of Tartu, on the ambulatory use of antibiotics in Estonia over the past 11 years (2008–2018).

Apart from this, experts in the field express concern: while only 15 years ago the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics was relatively modest in Estonia, their use has been increasing. The survey reveals that in 2008 the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics was only 5 times the use of narrow-spectrum antibiotics, whereas in 2018 broad-spectrum antibiotic consumption was 16 times higher than that of narrow-spectrum medicines.

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Researchers from home: You need to be more organized

Our PhD student in Mycology Saleh Rahimlouye Barabi, Research Fellow in Macroecology Riin Tamme, Junior Research Fellow in History Viktors Dāboliņš, and PhD student and Junior Research Fellow of Ancient DNA Tina Saupe talk about their life and work in home office these days.

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Student diary: Planning for school and food preparation

We’re still in the old-school paper-based calendar version. As for the food, we’re just sharing our experience – don’t mistake us for nutrition specialists.

Hello, dear readers of the UT Blog! 

It’s been a few days since we’ve made the first post about making a decision to stay here and finding sources that are good enough to keep you updated about the ongoing pandemy. We hope you liked the content! 🙂 

Today, we’d really like to “demonstrate” how a day passes for us, especially when we have to stay indoors for a quite big portion of the day. Sounds boring, right? We don’t think so! 

First of all, a big portion of our day is spent literally in front of the computer and sitting on our chairs. Wondering what we’re doing? It’s usually studying and completing tasks. All of us – students, teachers and UT staff – are going through disparate (not desperate!) situations right now, as we’re all trying to adapt to a completely new concept of online learning.

If you ask us how we’re coping with it, then we’re definitely still trying to figure out how to conduct practical things in a theoretical way. If your days are not as productive as you would like them to be – no worries! This is also a period where getting used to changes will take some time. Trust us, next week everything will be better and you’ll  feel much more normal! 

Probably the best practice we can make nowadays is to organize time! Although we’ve plenty of time to do many things, we saw that without planning, days become wasted. So, if you are not a fan of using a calendar, then this time is the perfect time to acquire the skill! Believe us, by starting every Monday with writing deadlines, courses to follow, and upcoming tests, the week becomes much clearer. 

If you’re wondering which type of calendar we’re using for school, then I guess we’re still in the old-school paper-based calendar version. By adding mini daily tasks, we can see the whole picture of the week! But if you can manage with the calendar in your phone or your computer, then it’s also perfect (and probably much easier!)

Apart from these technical issues, let us talk about some other changes that this “life with less social interaction” brought us: our daily habits of shopping and ready-made food consumption! As we really like cooking and trying out new recipes, preparing food for at least 3 courses a day was not a climb to Everest for us. However, the planning process is still taking more time than our expectations, but this definitely pushes us hard to be more productive – so that’s still great.

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